Divining design
A review of The Design Inference: Eliminating chance through small probabilities by
William A. Dembski
Cambridge University Press, 1998.
reviewed by Royal Truman
Throughout Church history, a popular argument for the existence of God has been
based on the appearance of designed structures in nature. William Paley pointed
out in Natural Theology (published in 1802)1
that should one happen upon an unknown object, such as a watch, and analyse what
it does, we would attribute its origin to an intelligent maker. It would be implausible
that the individual, highly precise components should have been so arranged by chance.
By analogy, the existence of complex parts working together to perform some useful
function should allow us to infer an intelligent maker in other contexts. Humans
also create works of art and engineering, and so surely are qualified to recognize
underlying intelligence in objects humans did not make.
Those determined to exclude God from the universe have always attempted to discredit
these kinds of arguments. We are told that we recognize that a watch was made because
we know about human watchmakers. Dawkins, in his book The Blind Watchmaker,
pursues another line of argument common in present evolutionary thinking. It states
simply that complex systems developed stepwise over large periods of time, totally
unguided, each step having some survival advantage, eventually producing by chance
living objects even more complex than watches.
Thomas Huxley argued that, given enough time, a team of monkeys typing random letters
on typewriters would with enough time produce Shakespeare’s works.2,3
How reasonable are these objections? Is it possible to identify some events or objects
as designed and not the result of chance?
Honed by a Ph.D. in mathematics (University of Chicago), another Ph.D. in philosophy
of science (University of Illinois) and an M.Div. from Princeton Theological Seminary,
Dr Dembski has tried to show that intelligent design can in principle be identified,
and that this can be done in a mathematically rigorous way.
This is not a religious book in any manner. No explicit attempt is made to apply
any conclusions neither to any living organism nor to the creation/evolution controversy.
The point is quite simply that should designed structures or events exist they are
detectable. Now, Dembski’s intention and personal beliefs can easily be determined
from his other writings.4 In The Creation
Hypothesis5 he writes,
‘I shall demonstrate that the world is sufficiently fine-grained to produce
events for which design is a compelling inference.’6
and later:
‘If ours is a world where God exists and actually does things that he intends
us to know about, then naturalism prevents us from obtaining such knowledge. Methodological
naturalism is therefore itself, to use Barbour’s phrase, “scientifically
stultifying.”’7
With methodological naturalism as the basis of evolutionary thinking, ‘truth’
is by stipulative definition the best theory available that does not invoke God’s
involvement in any manner. Many have pointed out that scientists should seek the
best explanation, whether this is restricted to only mechanistic principles or not.
The reason why one must sometimes expose evolutionists gently to growing doubts
was pointed out clearly by Dr Wells in an essay found in Mere Creation:
‘Kuhn aroused the ire of many scientists when he argued that paradigms have
philosophical and psychological components and are not readily discarded in the
face of anomalous evidence.’8
The French mathematician Emile Borel coined a principle known as the Single Law
of Chance, and formulated it as follows: ‘Phenomena with very small probabilities
do not occur’ (p. 3). This argument was not fully developed since
events of low probabilities actually could occur by chance. One can toss a large
number of coins, register the number of ‘heads’ and ‘tails’,
and then claim post facto a highly unlikely combination occurred. In fact,
any of the other possible outcomes are equally unlikely to be repeated in a subsequent
attempt.
Dembski’s key insight, which will be elaborated on below, is stated succinctly
as, ‘Specified events of small probability do not occur by chance’
(p. 5).
In statistics there is the notion of hypothesis testing. A hypothesis H0
might be: ‘On average women and men have equally long life spans.’ Since
a study to test this proposal can not include all women and men who have ever lived,
some assumptions must be made about samples collected for both sexes. By assuming
some probability distribution for the value (women’s average lifespan—men’s
average lifespan), one could calculate the probability of obtaining just by chance
the difference in average age found, with the variation that is found within each
group, and, for the number of people in each group. If that probability is very
small, then one rejects the original hypothesis that men and women have the same
average longevity, and assume that the difference found is due to some particular
cause(s). Unfortunately, many alternative theories are now still possible: perhaps
women live, on average, two years longer than men; or six years longer than men;
or men and women who never smoked live equally long; or before medical advances
in child-bearing improved, women lived half as long as men.
Identification of design relies on a different concept for an event which is specified,
either in advance or post-facto by comparing to a suitable pattern:
‘Thus, whereas statistical hypothesis testing eliminates chance because divergence
from mathematical expectation is too great, the design inference eliminates chance
because the fit with mathematical expectation is too close. We may therefore think
of design and chance as competing modes of explanation for which design prevails
once chance is exhausted’ (p. 8).
An example (pp 9–20) is offered to illustrate the issues
which are involved (New York Times, 23 July 1985, p. B1):
‘TRENTON, July 22—The New Jersey Supreme Court today caught up with
the “man with the golden arm”, Nicholas Caputo, the Essex County Clerk
and a Democrat who has conducted drawings for decades that have given Democrats
the top ballot line in the country 40 out of 41 times … the court noted that
the chances of picking the same name 40 out of 41 times were less than 1 in 50 billion.’9
Many evolutionists dismiss creationist probability arguments by saying: ‘So
what, some sequence or other had to result.’ But key to Dembski’s
analysis, exemplified by this example, is not the low probability alone; after all,
any particular random sequence of 41 outcomes is also highly improbable. The proof
is, try to duplicate the same series a second time. Critical are two conditions:
both a small probability and that an event be specified.10
It is common knowledge that the first position on the ballot has the highest chance
of being selected, all else being constant. Caputo knew this, had the opportunity
to decide the positions of the political parties, and as a Democrat (D) wished to
see his party win. This makes an unusually high proportion of Ds in the first position
as an outcome of recognizable significance, clearly an identifiable pattern. Coupled
with the miniscule probability of such a sequence arising by chance, it’s
no wonder that the New Jersey Supreme Court said:
‘Confronted with these odds, few persons of reason will accept the explanation
of blind chance’ (cited on p. 19).
While cheating
‘certainly is the best explanation of Caputo’s golden arm … the
court stopped short of convicting Caputo, … [because] the court had no clear
mandate for dealing with highly improbably ballot line selections’ (p. 19).
It would be easy to define several extreme cases of cheating patterns on the part
of Caputo in advance. They all would show a very high number of Ds in the first
ballot position. Such patterns are ‘detachable’ or independent of an
event (p. 14).
It is important to understand the notion of specified events. Shooting an arrow
and then drawing a bull’s eyes around it, 100 times in a row, is a pattern
called a fabrication: there is nothing unusual about where the arrows landed.
Hitting a fixed bull’s eye 100 times in a row from a considerable distance
suggests something entirely different (p. 13).
It is common belief that certain patterns identify an intelligent cause. Dembski
points out that whole industries are based on this concept, such as: intellectual
rights protection; forensic science; data falsification in science; cryptography,
and insurance. If three houses owned by the same person should all burn down within
a short period of time (low probability) and all be shown to be insured beyond their
true value (specification), then fraud can be assigned.
Dembski elaborates:
‘we need to understand what it is about intelligent agents that reveals their
activity. The principal characteristic of intelligent agency is directed contingency,
or what we call choice (p. 62).
The actualization of one among several competing possibilities, the exclusion of
the rest, and the specification of the possibility that was actualized encapsulate
how we recognize intelligent agents. … Exclusion establishes that there was
genuine contingency (i.e., that there were other live possibilities, and that these
were ruled out)’ (p. 63).
A good example of this can be found in the exclusively ‘left-handed’
amino acids found in proteins (coded by genes in DNA built with exclusively ‘right-handed’
sugars), even though synthesizing amino acids in a laboratory produces a 50/50 mixture
of left- and right-handed forms (a racemate). In living organisms, not
only are hundreds of amino acids which compose an average size protein exclusively
‘left-handed’, they have also managed to avoid all the other kinds of
non-peptide reactions amino acids would have undergone in a hypothetical ‘primordial
soup’.11 A racemate is worthless
in building enzymes and other biological materials. Therefore the useful outcomes
can be specified. Of the astronomically large number of possible reaction products,
a minuscule subset is purposefully generated in living cells.
Dembski illustrates the principle with this example:
‘to recognize whether a rat has successfully learned how to traverse a maze,
a psychologist must first specify the sequence of right and left turns that conducts
the rat out of the maze’ (p. 64).
The number of turns must be large enough to exclude that in a large number of attempts
one rat may just have been lucky.
In the SETI program (Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence), patterns are looked
for among radio-wavelength signals from outer space. Some patterns, such as a large
series of prime numbers in ascending order, have been specified as examples that
would demonstrate an intelligent sender. How might other patterns of 0s and 1s be
distinguished from random series?
‘In the 1960s, the Russian probabilist Andrei Kolmogorov investigated what
makes a sequence of coin flips random. … What Kolmogorov said was that a
string of 0s and 1s becomes increasingly random as the shortest computer program
that generates the string increases in length’(p. 32)
A series of a hundred 1s can be described by the program ‘repeat "1"
a hundred times.’ A slightly more random series might be encoded as, ‘repeat
"1" fifty times, then repeat “0” fifty times’ (p. 33).
Other truly random series can only be most efficiently represented by a command
such as ‘copy “11000110101110010000011 …”’
The explanatory filter
To assign regularity, chance or design to an event, Dembski
proposes one try to explain on the basis of these three possibilities and in that
order.
(a) If an outcome is deterministic or has a high probability of occurring and thus
can be explained by a natural law, then regularity should be assumed. This is not
to say God does not lie behind the scenes ultimately as the Lawgiver, but such an
explanation would be based on non-observational criteria.
‘For the filter to eliminate regularity, one must establish that a multiplicity
of possibilities is compatible with the given antecedent circumstance (recall that
regularity admits only one possible consequence for a given antecedent circumstance);
hence to eliminate regularity is to establish a multiplicity of possible consequences’
(p. 65).
(b) If regularity as an explanation fails, one should then see if chance is an acceptable
explanation. These are events of intermediate probability, ‘the events we
reasonably expect to occur by chance in the ordinary circumstances of life.’
(c) Only once chance has been excluded is design assumed to be the cause. These
events are characterized by patterns that are both specified and of vanishingly
small probabilities. This approach is conservative in that ‘past specifications
will continue to be specifications, though past fabrications (i.e., patterns that
in the past failed to count as specifications) may because of improvements in technology
now become specifications’ (p. 161).
A seemingly random pattern may be discovered later to contain information. In a
practical sense, biological observations, such as ‘junk DNA’ may very
well be found in the future to have a use, just as functions have been found for
previously classified ‘vestigial organs’.12,13
These three alternatives are complete and mutually exclusive.
‘The design inference, on the other hand, eliminates chance in the global
sense of closing the door to every relevant chance explanation’ (p. 42).
It must be pointed out that judging probabilities requires some background information
that accounts for how the event E could have arisen. Seeing some coins lying on
a table, with no knowledge of their history, does not allow strong statements to
be made, compared to the case of observing coins being flipped and allowed to be
dropped. Low probabilities are assigned on the basis of what we know, from experience
and scientific experimentation. I suggest that we do have good reasons to be sceptical
of a claim that an oil painting of Queen Elizabeth II resulted as a tram full of
paint cans derailed in front of Buckingham Palace.
Dembski illustrated in some detail the completeness and logical coherence of the
three alternatives using first-order predicate logic in section 2.2.14 Following the discussion requires some background
in De Morgan’s rules.15 For
the mathematically sophisticated, this level of rigor mostly ensures one is not
being careless in how the arguments are presented. It has the added advantage of
forcing one to identify which of the logical components one disagrees with if the
conclusion is not acceptable. In the case of explaining how life arose on earth,
the design inference takes on the following form (p. 56):
Premise 1: LIFE has occurred.
Premise 2: LIFE is specified.
Premise 3: If LIFE is due to chance, then LIFE has small probability.
Premise 4: Specified events of small probability do not occur by chance.
Premise 5: LIFE is not due to a regularity.
Premise 6: LIFE is due to regularity, chance, or design.
Conclusion: LIFE is due to design.
Life can be specified, for example by characteristics such as reproduction and a
genetic code.
Dembski shows that the well-known evolutionist Richard Dawkins, through his writings,
would accept premises 1,2,4,5,6 and is left with 3. Somehow LIFE must be claimed
to be not all that improbable. The odds against obtaining the right molecular arrangements
to support life are astronomical. Dawkins and others have argued there ‘must’
be many planets suitable for life to develop, so that although unlikely for an individual
one, somewhere life would appear.
I find it ironic that many evolutionists who would use the same argument as Dawkins
would have us believe there could be life on Mars. Surely the odds of life developing
on both planets would be even smaller than for the earth alone. Would such
a finding not destroy the preceding argument? However, one can see how the stories
would go: if no life is found on other planets, we will be informed: ‘You
see, I told you how unlikely it is. The earth just happened to be the lucky one.’
On the other hand, if life would be found, we will hear: ‘You see, it is no
big deal. Life can pop up anywhere. No need for a God.’
Dembski observes:
‘Advocates of the Anthropic Principle like Barrow and Tipler[16,17] posit an ensemble
of universes so that LIFE, though highly improbable in our own little universe,
is nevertheless virtually certain to have arisen at least once …’ (p.
60).
Dembski, as others, regards explanations for which no evidence exists nor by definition
could ever be found, as a dishonest way to avoid facing an issue squarely.
I am not convinced that invoking a huge number of non-interacting universes is even
in principle a scientific argument, i.e., a phenomenon that would make an unlikely
event in our universe less improbable ‘since it had to happen somewhere.’
There would still have to be a super ‘privileged frame’ of reference
that includes the individual universes. Isolated, non-interacting times do not allow
a common basis of probabilities.
Could I be right? It is a statistical principle that past outcomes of independent
events do not affect the probability of the next outcome. The chances of a fair
coin being flipped 8 times in a row and showing only ‘heads’ can be
stated in advance as being low (2–8). But if 7 ‘heads’
have already come up in a series, and then we ask at this point what the odds are
of getting a ‘heads’, it is still 50:50 for fair experiments. The fact
that 8 ‘heads’ in a row specified a priori is small does not
change the probability of an eighth head showing up if the specification is stated
after 7 ‘heads’ have appeared. Even if a million previous universes
had failed to generate life, that would not improve the chances for our own once
our own time reference began. But again, the whole thought experiment assumes an
external reality that encompasses all universes, which allows a common basis for
time and probabilistic rules to hold.
To understand what low probability means, Dembski writes:
‘All that the design inference requires of a probabilistic apparatus is that
it assign probabilities to events … always the probability of an event in
relation to certain background information’ (p. 69)
Unlike the Bayesian approach, in which additional information can increase the probability
that some hypothesis is indeed correct, the design theorist is in the business of
trying to exclude the hypothesis that chance can be an explanation. This requires
a good understanding of probability theory. A key skill is to be able compute the
number of alternative permutations consistent with the relevant causal factors.
Most people cannot estimate probabilistic values very accurately. A classical example
is the ‘birthday question’: how likely would it be to find two people
with a birthday on the same day for a random sample of 30 people? Most would say
intuitively, quite unlikely.18 However,
‘Again the numerical consequences are astounding. Thus for r=23 people we
have p < ½, that is, for 23 people the probability that at least two people
have a common birthday exceeds ½’ (p. 76).
The reason is that all paired comparisons between everyone in the sample must be
made and not only for a single person.
Which patterns are truly generated by random factors are not so easily determined
by the untrained:
‘A standard trick of statistics professors in teaching introductory statistics
is to have half the students in a class each flip a coin 100 times, recording the
sequence of heads and tails on a slip of paper, and then have each student in the
other half as a purely mental act mimic a sequence of 100 coin tosses. …
The statistics professor simply looks for a repetition of six or seven heads or
tails in a row to distinguish the truly random. … In a hundred coin flips
one is quite likely to see six or seven such repetitions. … As a matter of
human psychology people expect that one toss will differ from the next around seventy
percent of the time’ (p. 138).
A rigorous analysis of the likelihood that an event will occur given background
information assumes that the information has been as fully and effectively used
as possible (p. 78). However, ‘There is no algorithm that for every event-information
pair invariably outputs the right probability’ (p. 85). I should point out
that many statements one comes across, such as ‘With enough time anything
is possible’, or ‘After enough random trials, evolution eventually came
up with a functional
knee’ are inevitably never accompanied with any mathematical calculations.
Complexity theory, which analyses the difficulty to solve a problem with available
resources, was shown to be related to the notion of low probabilities. In a simplified
form, it can be stated: if using resources like a huge number of computers working
together with algorithms of maximum effectiveness would require a vast amount of
time to (possibly) solve a problem, then this goal is both complex, difficult and
has a lower probability of being solved (chapter 4). If all theoretically possible
resources would not be sufficient, the problem is called intractable.
Is this relevant to the question of design? Certainly, since the universe is not
infinitely old, the resources available to solve creation of life problems are limited.
Dembski writes:
‘The solutions to mathematical problems are widely held to be noncontingent
since mathematical propositions are regarded as necessarily true or false. Nevertheless,
the capacity of rational agents to solve mathematical problems is contingent, depending
on the resources available to these agents’ (p. 128).
Dembski introduces the concept of probabilistic resources to mean all the
possible generators (machines, people, etc.) which could produce a class of outcomes,
one of which includes the pattern of interest.
The view that the universe had a beginning is not restricted to the ‘big bang’
theory or even the Genesis testimony. A classical argument developed by Jewish and
Muslim theologians known as the ‘Kalà m cosmological argument’19–22
points out that without a beginning it would not be possible to have arrived at
the present point in time. That would be like trying to jump out of an infinitely
deep bottomless pit. Since time and matter are limited, the resources to solve a
problem or to build a complex structure are also limited. Even as many mathematical
problems are intractable, the unstated conclusion is also that evolutionary mechanisms
cannot even in principle work.
Dembski has now brought us to the point where an important notion can be properly
appreciated. This is the concept of a specified probability so low it can never
happen. One way of setting a lower bound beyond which an event can be said
will never occur takes into account three things: the total number of particles
in the universe (1080), the amount of time available using evolutionary
cosmology (1025 seconds) and the maximum number of discrete changes a
particle could undergo, based on the Planck time (1045 alterations) per
second.
Then the total number of specified events throughout cosmic history cannot exceed
10150 (p. 209). If we take half this number, then we can state confidently
that we should never expect a specified event whose probability is less than 0.5x10–150
to happen, ever.
This summarizes in my view the key points, neglecting to use Dembski’s mathematical
axioms and formal language notation. These have the advantage of minimizing any
ambiguity in what is being stated, but often requires some sophistication in this
manner of reasoning.
Now, will a formal mathematical basis for identifying design be useful in the creation/evolution
controversy? I believe this book will indeed be quoted as a reference to evaluate
some of the probability numbers one encounters. For example, MIT biochemist Sauer’s
detailed calculations show there is about a 10–65 chance of obtaining
a single medium-sized functional protein by chance.23
However, there are thousands of different kinds of proteins in mammals, used to
build organs, tissue, enzymes and so on. The chance of three unrelated types of
protein forming by chance (ignore the scheduling problem to be generous) is now
10–65 x 10–65 x 10–65 = 10–195.
We see immediately that dozens of proteins will not form by chance.
An evolutionist argument that some kind of selection process can overcome chance
is only so many empty words without offering a detailed stepwise proposal. The chance
of obtaining 999 ‘heads’ upon flipping 1000 fair coins together is exactly
the same as obtaining 999 ‘heads’ upon flipping a single coin 1000 times
in a row (unless the coin-tosser dies during the longer sequential tries or an earthquake
scrambles some of the successful ‘heads’ in the interval. On average,
time without guidance plays against our goals).24
The chances that a hypothetical sequence of unguided events would lead to ever more
complex structures, which will culminate in a cell complete with DNA which now could
undergo Darwinian-type competition and selection is not better than that
such a cell should appear in one miraculous unguided jump. The individual steps
must all occur, before the duplication apparatus and correction mechanisms
can work. During the whole process, the intermediates can undergo countless undesirable
processes, destroying any progress made towards our target. The chances that every
step would occur, for even one cell, given the total time and material available
makes this proposal implausible.
The Intelligent Design Movement
This thesis is an important piece in the logical arsenal used by the growing Intelligent
Design (ID) movement.25 The attempts
to free academia and research funds from the stranglehold of methodological materialism
can only help the creationist movement. One must, however, be careful not to forget
the ultimate goal: to bring people to a saving knowledge of the crucified and risen
Saviour. Exciting as this new forum is, one may become bogged down in too-theoretical
discussions, or become overly careful not to offend those involved who do not share
our faith.
I myself support the ID movement as a stepping stone for current evolutionists not
willing to go too far out on a limb too quickly. After all, a fortune has been spent
claiming how irrational and dangerous Christian fundamentalists are. But I believe
a bigger commitment directly in a concrete position, like a literal Genesis reading
and young earth model, is more fruitful. For hearts already prepared, one starts
closer to our goal, and furthermore this approach permits concrete models to be
explored scientifically, like fitting the Flood to the geological record, instead
of keeping each and every possible theistic position open.
Further reading
References
- Recently republished in edited and abridged form as Cooper, B.,
Paley’s Watchmaker, New Wine Press, Chichester, West Sussex, UK,
1997. Return to text.
- For a discussion of this claim and Dembski’s answer, see
on-line article. Return to text.
- Grigg, R.M.,
Could monkeys type the 23rd psalm? Apologia 3(2):59–63,
1994; updated from his 1991 article, in Creation, 13(1):30–34.
Return to text.
- See some very good
on-line articles. Return to text.
- Moreland, J.P., ed., The Creation Hypothesis. Scientific Evidence
for an Intelligent Designer. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois, 1994.
Return to text.
- Dembski, W.A., Chapter 3, In: Moreland, Ref. 5, p.120.
Return to text.
- Dembski, Ref. 6, p.133. Return to text.
- Dembski, WA, ed., Mere Creation. Science, Faith & Intelligent
Design with Contributions by Michael Behe, David Berlinski, Phillip Johnson, Hugh
Ross and Others, InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois, p. 66, 1998.
Return to text.
- For more details on this incident, see Dembski’s on-line
article at: <http://www.arn.org/docs/dembski/WD_explfilter.htm>.
Return to text.
- See Batten, D.,
Cheating with chance , Creation 17(2):14–15,
1995, for refutation of some fallacious evolutionary arguments against creationist
probability calculations. Return to text.
- Sarfati, J.D.,
Origin of life: the chirality problem , CEN Tech. J. 12(3):263–266,
1998. Return to text.
- Bergman, J. and Howe, G.,
‘Vestigial Organs’ Are Fully Functional, p. 77, Creation
Research Society Books, Kansas City, 1990. Return to text.
- Murris, H.R., Vestigial organs: A creationist re-investigation,
Origins 5(13):10–15, 1992. Return to
text.
- The branch of formal logic systematising the relations between
predicates involving the quantifiers such as ‘all/every’, ‘no/none’
and ‘some/a’. Return to text.
- The two theorems in symbolic logic formalized by Augustus De Morgan
(1806–1871), relating the negation of conjunctions and disjunctions of propositions
p and q:
- ‘not (p or q)’ is equivalent to ‘not-p and not-q’
— symbolically ~(pvq) ∴ ~p.~q
- ‘not (p and q)’ is equivalent to ‘not-p or not-q’
— symbolically ~(p.q) ∴ ~pv~q
Return to text.
- Barrow, J. and Tipler, F., The Anthropic Cosmological Principle,
Clarendon Press, 1986. This is probably the most comprehensive study of the fine-tuning
of the universe. They, however, reject existence of a Creator. Return
to text.
- See also Craig, W.L., Barrow and Tipler on the anthropic principle
vs divine design, Brit. J. Phil. Sci. 38:389–95,
1998; see
similar online article. Craig points out the central fallacy of their argument
for rejecting a Creator. Once this fallacy is removed, the book becomes a compendium
of data of modern science which point to design in nature inexplicable in natural
terms and therefore pointing to a Divine Designer (although beware of ‘design’
arguments presupposing the unscriptural ‘big bang’).
Return to text.
- The atheistic evolutionist Russell Doolittle used this deceitful
argument in a debate with Duane Gish at Iowa State University
on October 2, 1980, in a desperate attempt to neutralise Gish’s strong probability
arguments for creation. This trick succeeded in hoodwinking the audience, because
Dr Gish, a biochemist not a probabilist, couldn’t refute it at the time. See
Gish, D.T.,
Creation Scientists Answer Their Critics, Institute for Creation Research,
El Cajon, CA, pp. 94–95, 1993. Return to text.
- Craig, W.L., The Kalām Cosmological Argument,
Barnes and Noble, New York, ch. 14, 1979; see also his online article
The Existence of God and the beginning of the Universe. Return to
text.
- Moreland, Ref. 5, pp. 18–23. Return to text.
- Dembski, Ref. 8 chapter 14. Return to text.
- Sarfati, JD,
If God created the universe, then who created God?, Journal of Creation
12(1): 20–22, 1998. Return to text.
- Discussed by Stephen Meyer in the on-line article,
The Origin of Life and the Death of Materialism. Return to
text.
- Truman, R.,
Dawkins’ weasel revisited, Journal of Creation 12(3):
358–361, 1998. Return to text.
- Ury, T.H., Mere Creation conference, Journal of Creation
11(1):25–30, 1997. Return to text.
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